Chapter 4 Armando Peralta

Chapter 4 builds off of the concepts that chapter 2 and Chapter 3 discussed by describing a scientists attempt to prove the most popular extinction event: the death of dinosaurs via big rock from space or rather the effect said rock from space had on the planet. Scientist Walter and Luiz Alvarez are responsible for the theory that dinosaur were killed by an asteroid crashing on earth. They discovered large amounts of iridium in a crater in Italy called Gubbio. Iridium comes from asteroids and thus they theorized that an asteroid was responsible for everyone's least favorite extinction event.  Of course their theory wasn't immediately accepted and was met with opposition from uniformitarians that argued that extinction is a slow and gradual process,  what the Alvarez's argued fit more along the lines of catastrophism. Walter and Luiz didn't argue that the impact was responsible but the disturbance the impact had. The theme of science being a process again pops up as new information is presented but it must be evaluated before it becomes the new accepted norm.  I have one question regarding the theory of an asteroid impact which is how do scientist know that iridium comes from asteroids? Is there an somewhere on earth from which they were able to extract iridium off of?

Chapter 3 Armando Peralta

Since the previous chapter talked about extinction, of course the next chapter will have to be a about the first theories regarding extinction. The two main theories were catastrophism and uniformitarianism. Catastrophism was proposed by William Whewell and it states that in the history of earth there have been very catastrophic events which cause many species to go extinct. On the other hand there is uniformitarianism, which was proposed by Charles Lyell and stated that rather than extinction being instantaneous, it was a gradual process. Uniformitarianism influenced the ideas of Charles Darwin and his theory of evolution. The theme of science being a process is again shown in this chapter as scientist use new ideas to come up with new theorize to explain how those ideas may be possible.They elaborate upon each other's theories.

Chapter 2 Armando Peralta

Chapter 2 is about the origins of the concept of extinction. The idea of animals having gone extinct began with one man and one fossil.  That man was Georges Cuvier and the fossil was that of a mastodon.  The theme of this chapter is the scientific process. Initially the fossil's were believed to belong to  living animal species such as an Elephant, a hippopotamus, or an undiscovered species. However, Cuvier proposed that they belonged to a long dead species of elephant-like creatures. The theory was accepted as soon as it had been published. Many believed the mastodon was still at large in the North American continent. It took time for people to turn to Cuvier's theory as the more logical theory regarding what creature the bones belonged to. This conveys how science is constantly changing and as new fossils, natural processes, and new theories are crafted our understanding deepens and more questions arise. Since, the origin of the concept of extinction has now put out there, then the next step would be to find out what could've caused organisms to go extinct.

Chapter 13 (Jalen Jones)

In Chapter 13 the author shines a light on the advancements of human influence in the world . Claiming that we should focus more on the present and how we continue to grow and aid the environment. I completely agree with this statement because the future is what will lead to many more positive advancements. However; many of these advancements cannot have been made without investigating into the past and realizing what problems there were in order to fix them. This can be shown through the process in helping aid environments all over the world. We know what works, what doesn’t and what is setting us back. This is a direct theme to technological and human growth leading to a positive outcome on the world. More people allow for more progressive work and technology helps in many ways.

Chapter 11 (Jalen Jones)

Chapter 11 begins with Kolbert traveling to the Cincinnati Zoo to meet a Sumatran rhinoceros named Suci and Dr. Roth, the zoo's conservation director. Suci was 1 in 5 of the only sumatran rhinos left. When these rhinos first became endangered, it was believed that exporting them to zoo's would be the only way to save their lives. Unfortunately, they were incorrect. Flies, tetanus, and injuries kept the rhinos from reaching or even surviving in the zoo. That's when the zookeeper's figured that they needed to try something new with the rhinos. Switching their diets was the only way to keep them alive. Once they were kept alive, Roth was able to inseminate a rhino named Emi. That's when Suci was born. That's when Kolbert began to question why such amazing and gigantic animals became extinct. This connects with number 5 of the APES themes. While there are so many factors that correlate with the extinction of species, there is no one cause of extinction. In order to determine why these species go extinct, we have to start big then go small. Starting with this huge rhino might give us some ideas on why smaller animals have a harder time surviving in new or even the same area. Maybe then we would be able to find other "overkillers."

Chapter 12 (Jalen Jones)

Chapter 12 begins with Kolbert visiting a valley in Germany called Das Neanderthal. On her journey here she examines the history and the truth behind the extinction of the Neanderthals. Many theories belief that they died off due to climate, or the establishment and interference with homosapiens. One of these inferences were interbreeding which was hypothesized due to similar DNA. This leads on into the theme of science being a process and it continues the change and build as life goes on and as new life is discovered. This can be shown in new life being created and having exponential growth on what is now the world. The interbreeding between different species may have been something needed in order for life to carry on into the new world. 

Chapter thirteen - Waleska Reyes

Chapter thirteen - Waleska Reyes

Chapter thirteen starts off with the quote “futurology has never been a very respectable field of inquiry”. This quote leads me to believe this chapter will be about science forming predictions for the future. Kolbert visits the Institute for Conservation Research at the San Diego Zoo. Kolbert is shown the last genetic remains of a “black-faced honeycreeper, a chunky bird with a sweet face and a ream-colored chest that lived on Maui”. During her trip Kolbert asks an important question: is it necessary for these plants and animals to die? But acts like the Endangered Species Act try to prevent extinction which proves that maybe there is a solution.

Kolbert then meets Barbara Durant, a reproductive physiologist, from a veterinary hospital next to the ICR. Durant explains to Kolbert how she has worked hard to get a Hawaiian crow to reproduce but hasn’t had any luck. This makes Kolbert think about how some humans work hard to save species from extinction.

Kolbert then explains the term “sixth extinction”. Essentially we are in an era where humans are the dominant species therefore they can cause other species to become extinct. Thinking back to the previous chapters it is evident that humans alter the ecosystem and natural systems of other species easily. Kolbert states the outlook of more optimistic individuals by saying, “Human ingenuity will outrun any disaster human ingenuity sets in motion”. Humans will be able to fix the catastrophes they create. This chapter makes me wonder is the extinction of mankind a possibility ?

Chapter twelve - Waleska Reyes

Chapter twelve - Waleska Reyes

Chapter twelve opens up with a description of a valley named  Das Neandertal, in Germany. Kolbert highlights that the first Neanderthal fossils were found there. It was discovered that they lived by hunting, creating tools, and carving animal’s skin for clothes/protection from the weather. Neanderthals are often compared to humans. Now, in the present day, individuals have taken DNA tests that put them closer to Neanderthal heritage than most. Furthermore, this has resulted in the theory of interbreeding. The investigation of Neanderthals has sparked a conversation with the leading question, “what makes a human a human?”. A scientist names Paabo has a theory that humans have the qualities of relentlessness and curiosity.

"In other words, as one researcher put it to me, "their bad luck was us" (pg. 237). Kolbert is starting to highlight more and more the devastation and harm humans are causing other species. Which connects to the theme, once again, that humans destroy natural systems. Even from an early age, we were the downfall of many creatures. My question is can we reverse that? Can we save the species we are “doomed” to kill or is it just the process of natural selection?

Chapter 5 Jaquan Ellis

         In this chapter, two physiologists took 24 students and had them identify cards as a experiment. Some of the cards were changed leading the students to misread the cards and change their whole perspective when the physiologists showed them the cards at a slower pace. They had quickly began to realize their mistakes. A man by the name of Thomas Kuhn presented the ideas of how humans have been forced to adapt to their changing environment which connects to the theme of human survival depends on developing practices because humans have been developing their intelligence to provide for themselves and making new discoveries that can benefit mankind itself. Kolbert travels to a cliff in Don Lin and meets a man named Jan. Jan shows her a bedrock that dates back to 445 million  years ago where the sea life grew rapidly and suddenly went extinct. The Graptolites were examples of how their evolution led to their downfalls due to them not being able to adapt to lower temperatures. This connects back to the card experiment. The students had to constantly adapt to the change that was going on while the Graptolites couldn’t handle so many changes at once. This shows how the Earth itself has many unpredictable circumstances that we have to get accustomed to.

Chapter 13 Abudul Gaku

In chapter 13 of the book, Kolbert goes to the Institute for Conservation Research (ICR) to study the future. She is shown vials which have the last genetic remaining of the black faced honeycreeper, a Hawaiian bird that is almost extinct. The ICR's collection of genetic material is known as the "frozen zoo." Kolbert takes a view of nature and wonders why species have to go extinct. Why do species have to be sacrificed to make room for humanity? - That is the big question.

Chapter 9 (Jalen Jones)

Chapter 9 begins with a location in Brazil known as Reserve 1202. In this area there are 25 acres of untouched forest, a location that is controlled by Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project, also known as BDFFP. Founded by Tom Lovejoy BDFFP, was made to protect areas from being cut down by those who seeked to use it as their own property. For example farmers and ranchers. His beliefs ran strong as he sent a plan to the Brazilian government which was later approved and he studied the main forest. The author continues to show how messed up a world 50 million square miles of habitable land has been halfway destroyed. This being said she makes a connection to the bird species and their lack of growth. Lack of growth is something that has been common around the world due to the input of humans. We take and destroy resulting in extinct species and dilemmas such as pollution, basically altering earths natural system 

Chapter 12 Abudul Gaku

In chapter 12 of the book sets in Neander Valley. In the mid 19th century, the first Neanderthal remains were discovered. Many other parts were discovered in Europe and the Middle East. Neanderthals had an advantage in the ecosystem - they created sophisticated tools and hunted animals, but they were wiped out. Many argue that they could not adapt to the climate change while others claim that it was homo sapiens that killed them. Neanderthals were first thought to be humans, but their bone frames proved otherwise. There is also the theory that homo sapiens and Neanderthals interbred. Neanderthals were though to be uncivilized, hairy, with slouched backs. But, after further research, those conclusions were proved wrong.

Chapter 10 (Jalen Jones)

Chapter 10 begins in Albany with a team of biologists who decided to climb into caves and count bat population. When they arrived to the caves, they were met with dead bats lying on the floor with a white substance on their body. Nobody understood why this happened. Eventually, Kolbert discovered that the white substance was a fungus that had traveled from West Virginia. This was extremely confusing due to the fact that Darwin had a theory that stated that organisms couldn't  travel long distances without dying out. This species of bats ended up dying because of the new environment that it was living in although, it should be the opposite. This relates to the first APES theme because it shows how we still have a lot of work to do when it comes to discovering why certain species can't live in certain places. Also we have to try to discover the reason for the widespread of this fungi. How was it able to travel so far and adapt to every environment that it was in?

Chapter eleven - Waleska Reyes

Chapter eleven - Waleska Reyes

Kolbert is visiting the Cincinnati Zoo to meet a rhinoceros named Succi. Succi is a Sumatran rhinoceros, which is one of five rhino species left in our planet. Kolbert explains that Sumatran rhinos lives in the Himalayas, they were very common then but are not becoming extinct. A group of conservationists gather a small group of rhinos in hopes to save them in American zoos. Unfortunately many rhinos died immediately.

Many of the rhinos were being inseminated in order to get them to reproduce. A rhino named Emi was inseminated who gave birth to Succi and Harapan. Kolbert highlights that the extinction of these rhinos is due to humans. In addition Kolbert points out that most large animals are herbivores whose size is used as a defense against its predators. But most of these animals are becoming extinct. My question is why do most large animals become extinct over time?

Kolbert then travels to a fossil site, named Big Bone Lick. Charles Lyell said that the fossils found in that site were of animals who became extinct due to the change in our climate. Another theory is that human beings hunted these animals into extinction. Evidence to support this theory is that these animals didn’t die out all at one but rather over time, their remains did not exemplify malnutrition, and these animals had already survived difficult climates. Although in the past it was an advantage to be a large animal once humans came into play it became a disadvantage.

Once again I relate this chapter to the theme that humans change natural systems. Once humans began to hunt animals they put some in extinction and made it a disadvantage to have the characteristics they did.

Chapter ten - Waleska Reyes

Chapter ten - Waleska Reyes

Chapter ten opens up with a description of Albany, New York. Kolbert explains that a team of biologists is doing a routine bat census. During the census they realize that most of the bats are dead, Kolbert highlights there is a white powdery substance on them. Kolbert discovers that a fungus called Geomyces Destructans cause the death of the bats. It is important to note that this fungus if from Europe, therefore, an invasive species. The reason for the transportation of species from its homeland to a different area is due to humans. Therefore it is important to note that biodiversity is decreasing due to human activity like transportation.  

"Before human arrived on the scene, many whole categories of organisms were missing from Hawaii; these included not only rodents but also amphibians, terrestrial reptiles, and ungulates" (pg. 212). Humans altered an ecosystem by bringing in invasive animals. Invasive species are dangerous because they can kill off a native species, therefore, decreasing the biodiversity of certain areas. A

Once again I connect this chapter to the theme of humans altering natural systems. Due to our advancements in transportation, we have also transported invasive species that will kill off native species. My question is can we get rid of all the invasive species already living in certain areas? Can an invasive species become native?

Chapter 13 --- Jennifer E

On page 262-263 of The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History it states, “Wouldn’t it be better, practically and ethnically, to focus on what can be done and is being done to save species, rather than to speculate gloomily about a future in which the biosphere is reduced to little plastic vials?” In this quote it mentions that if what scientist are doing is ethical. This connects to a book I read called Flowers of Algernon, that also brings up the idea that are scientist are being ethical. In the book, it reveals that scientists are doing surgery on others without doing proper research. This connect to the quote because the author is questioning if scientists should help the species going through extinction. This connect to the theme understanding the role of cultural, social, and economic factors is vital to the development of solutions. Even though, you are making discoveries and our learning about the past,present and future. It still cause raises question regarding what scientist  with that information.

Chapter 8 (Jalen Jones)

In Chapter 8, Kolbert is now visiting professor Miles Silman in the country of Peru. Silman who is an ecologist at Wake Forest University, shows the grand abundance of forest in South America. In these forest there is also a great amount of tree species living, along with more organisms such as algae, fungi and animals such as frogs. This large abundance of nature is due to forest having such a high reproduction rate. This aspect also allows for the creation of mutations. Many different species results in different temperatures in locations and humidity. This is a clear example of how the Earth functions, species are created and under different climate and temperatures they function and continue to live.

Chapter 12---Jennifer E

According to The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History, on page 258 it states, “The DNA showed that the digit did not belong to a modern human or to a Neanderthal. Instead, it owner represented an entirely new and previously unsuspected group of hominid.” This connects to the theme science is a method of learning more about the world. In this quote new hominid was discovered. This only further shows that there still a lot to explore in the world of science. As a result, it open up possibility to learn more about the past and to build off theories that already exist.

Chapter 11 Abudul Gaku

In chapter 11, Kolbert is visiting the Cincinnati Zoo to meet a rhinoceros named Suci. Suci is a Sumatran rhinoceros, only one of five in the world. Sumatran rhinos lives in the Himalayas, Sumatra, and Borneo. They were very common then but are now are on the brink of extinction. A group of conservationists gather a small group of rhinos in hopes to save them in American zoos. Surprisingly many rhinos died immediately due to diseases caused by flies. In order to get them to reproduce, the rhinos were inseminated. A rhino named Emi was inseminated who gave birth to Succi and Harapan. The extinction of these rhinos is due to human activity. This was another piece of evidence that backs the claim that humans are causing the sixth extinction - our actions are severely affecting wildlife. Kolbert travels to a fossil site called Big Bone Lick. Charles Lyell stated that the fossils found in that site were of animals who became extinct due to climate change. Another theory is that human beings hunted these animals into extinction. The animals did not suffer from climate because of their resilience, but us humans made them die over time. This is also anther example of the theme that humans altering natural systems

Chapter 11 -- Jennifer E

On page 189 of The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History it’s states, “The megafauna extinction, it’s clear, did not take place all at once, as Lyell and Wallace believed it had. Rather, it occurred in pulses.” This shows how discovering new ideas can change the way you think and  can help scientist build off. This connects to the theme science is a method of learning more about the world. In the quote, it show that Lyell and Wallace as scientist are using their observation and background knowledge. By acknowledging that their original theory and discover that it actually happens differently.

Chapter 10--- Jennifer E

According to The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History, on page 204 it states, “Long-term relationships between pathogens and their hosts are often characterized in military terms; the two are locked in an ‘evolutionary arms race,’ in which, to survive, each must prevent the other from getting too far ahead.” This overall reminds me of the relationship between a predator and prey. In this case, the prey is the host because it’s being attacked by an pathogen. This overall relates to the theme the earth itself is one interconnected system. The quote reveal a relationship between a host and pathogen and how it impact both organism.

Chapter 9-- Jennifer E

On page 189 of The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History it’s states, “ Many species, sensitive even to slight change in light and heat, have declined in abundance toward the edges of the fragments, through the number of light- loving butterflies increases”(P) Based on this, I predict that species that are sensitive to light are going to die out if they stay in that area. I predict that the butterfly population will increased because the light in that area will attract other butterfly allowing them to reproduce. This connects to the theme Natural systems change over time and space because over time the light and heat from that area change causing it to be change the ecosystem in that environment.

Chapter nine - Waleska Reyes

Chapter nine - Waleska Reyes

Chapter nine starts off with the description of Reserve 1202, in Brazil. There are 25 acres of rainforest. But it is controlled by the Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragments Project, ran by Tom Lovejoy. Lovejoy’s research is supposed to compare his reserve to the rainforest. On earth there are  50 million square miles of acres of land, and humans are in more than 25 million miles of acres of that land.

Kolbert then introduces Mario Cohn-Haft. Cohn-Haft has noticed a decrease in the biodiversity in the mainland. Humans activities like deforestation is blamed for the decrease in the biodiversity.

Humans are affecting certain ecosystems greatly. This chapter specifically mentions animals that are going extinct due to human activities. The theme that connected with the chapter the most is humans alter natural systems. Due to human activities such as forest deforestation and global warming, species are at a disadvantage and not ready to take on these new environments. Many species may not be able to survive in changing climates and atmospheres. Furthermore even some man made structure might not allow them to migrate even if they could.

Chapter 7 (Jalen Jones)

Chapter 7 begins with Kolbert going to a research center on One Tree Island. She discusses how Great Barrier Reef's job is to protect marine species and food. The Barrier Reef continues to be jeopardized because of pollution. This was tested by scientist Ken Caldeira. Caldeira showed Kolbert that since the 1980's, the reefs have been exposed to high levels of carbon dioxide. This meant that the coral reefs were not immune to the changing levels of carbon dioxide (disagreeing with popular belief). He then said the in the next half century, the reefs are most likely going to dissolve. Going back to theme 4, HUMANS CHANGE EVERYTHING. Fossil Fuels seem to come up a lot in these themes but it needs to be seen that almost everything having to do with human caused extinctions involve fossil fuels. How long is it going to take for people to realize what they are doing?  

Chapter 8 -- Jennifer E

According to The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History, on page 162 it states, “Warming today is taking place at least ten times faster than it did at the end of the last glaciation, and at the end of all those glacification that preceded it. To keep up, organism will have to migrate, or otherwise adapt, at least ten times more quickly.” This shows that due to the chemicals released in the atmosphere, the global temperature will start to increase. It pushes animals to migrate in order to supply or to adapt. This overall connects to the theme natural systems change over time and space. In this case the natural system is the weather. If the weather is rising, it’ll force animals and other organism to adapt or move in order to survive. This connects to polar bears losing their habitat due to global warming. Because of the rise in temperature, the arctic sea ice is melting. This cause the polar bears to lose their habitat.

Chapter 5 (Jalen Jones)

Starting off Chapter 5, two Harvard physiologist are conducting an experiment where they studied 24 undergraduates. The basis of this experiment was through the use of playing cards and how the undergraduates perceived them. Although most of the cards were completely normal, a couple were changed. Throughout the experiment many began to have trouble identifying the cards. In a paper entitled The Perception of Incongruity: A Paradigm, the results were shown informing readers about the struggle of identifying altered cards. Many arguments and points were made throughout the book and one can be shown through science historian, Thomas Kahun’s belief of humans adapting to changing environments. This is continued to be seen when author Elizabeth Kolbert meets Jan Zalasiewicz, a stratigrapher. Throughout their meeting Kolbert is shown 445 million year old rocks, during a time period of rapid sea life growth. Unfortunately most of those oceans became extinct, something specific would be Graptolite, which Zalasiewicz was currently studying. What once held a large abundance is now extinct, their adjustable ability to temperature and pressure led to their demise. This made me think, not all good qualities lead to a strong figure creatures must know not only how to develop but to use their strengths to help grow their population.

Chapter 6-- Jennifer E

According to The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History, on page 113 it states, “ Since the start of the industrial revolution, humans have burned through enough fossil fuels -- coal, oil and natural gas-- to add some 365 billion metric tons of carbon to the atmosphere. Deforestation has contributed another 180 billions.” This quote about excess fossil fuels being released into the atmosphere helped me think about how even though humans create amazing technology like cars and boats. However, it’s overall costing us our planet. Due to the fact that cars burn fossil fuel, it only add issues like the ocean becoming more acidic and holes in the ozone layers. This overall connects to the theme  Technology and population growth have enabled humans to increase both the rate and scale of their impact on the environment. This relates to the quote because due to new technology like fertilizer and cars, it releases chemicals that can harm our planet. (Q) Is all this new technology worth hurting the planet? What are ways humans can avoid using fertilizer or burning fossil fuels?

Chapter 10 Abudul Gaku

Chapter 10 of the book opens up with a team of biologists climbing into caves during the winter time in Albany, in hopes to count the bat population. To their surprise there were thousands of bats lying dead on the ground, covered in a white substance. The next year, the biologists tried again and discovered the same result - the bats lying dead on the ground covered in a white substance. This continued over the years and spread to other states. The white powder was discovered to be a fungus, Geomyces destructans, which is deadly to bats. This reminded me of the Golden Frogs from chapter 1 that died of Bd, another fungus. This made me realize how deadly fungus can be. This is because they can spread rapidly and they are hard to get rid of. Fungus and bacteria that are introduced to a new environment often lead to the extinction of other life forms. This chapter has informed me of another factor that can contribute to extinction. 

Chapter 4 Jaquan Ellis

             In a small town known as Gubbio, a geologist by the name of Walter Alvarez discovered traces of a huge asteroid which was claimed to be the one that struck the dinosaurs during the Cretaceous period. The traces were a thick layer of clay that contained iridium and marine fossils beneath the surface of the Earth. There began the Alvarez theory of where the Earth was struck by a iridium covered asteroid, killing off the dinosaurs. Kolbert meets up with a man known as Landman and is told that a species called ammonites have survived with few numbers and evolved after the asteroid struck and has began to adapt into many areas to live in. Are there other species that survived  the asteroid struck? It’s a little peculiar for species that are weaker than dinosaurs surviving a asteroid impact.

Chapter 13 by Andrea Guinanzaca

At last, in chapter 13, Kolbert goes to the Institute for Conservation Research in San Diego to study and reflect on her findings and discoveries. Kolbert reflects over the impact humans have had on the planet, Earth. She asks herself, “does it have to end this way?”, “do the world’s beautiful plants and animals need to go extinct to make room for humanity?”. Although it’s true that humans can be destructive, they can also be “forward-thinking and altruistic.”

It’s not clear if the Sixth Extinction will continue to eliminate many more species, or if humans will be able to control their behavior and preserve what remains of the world’s biodiversity. However, due to previous events in human history, and based on the world we live in today, it is more likely impossible to control human behavior.

The chapter, mentions who  In the middle of the American Museum of Natural History, there is a small exhibit about the Sixth Extinction. In this exhibit, it shows some of the extinct animals of the past and even mentions that one day, humans could go extinct, too. Some argue that human ingenuity will allow the species to survive indefinitely. Which is probably why we’re exploring other planets in order to find more space to expand to and develop. In conclusion, humans are unknowingly causing some species to go extinct and others to survive.

Chapter 12 by Andrea Guinanzaca

In chapter 12, we learn about  Pääbo and his studies. But before we go into that, back in the mid-19th century, workers stumbled upon the first Neanderthal remains. Since then, scientists found Neanderthal remains in different parts of Europe and the Middle East. There are several explanations as to why Neanderthals wiped out. Some researchers argue that environmental changes wiped out the Neanderthals, while others claim that Homo sapiens killed them. Pääbo, a pioneered “paleogenetics”,  studies ancient genetics with the hope that, in the near future, humans will succeed in mapping the Neanderthal genome so that they can compare Homo sapiens and Neanderthal genetics side-by-side.

In the coming decades, more Neanderthal bones appeared, and researchers noticed that the skeletons had unusual large skulls and unusual bowed femur bones. In the early 20th century, scientists portrayed Neanderthals as hairy, brutish creatures who could barely stand up straight but this was taken as evidence of their uncivilized nature. However, after World War II, anatomists re-examined Neanderthal remains and made some striking conclusions. They decided that Neanderthals didn’t walk with a slouch, weren’t hairy, and even looked striking like modern humans. There is even some evidence that Neanderthals buried their dead and planted flowers on the graves. DNA is often considered to be a “blueprint” for the structure of a human being. Most of those humans’ descendants migrated to the Middle East, followed by Europe, Asia, Australia, and the Americas. This suggests that Neanderthals were already living in Eurasia when the ancestors of modern humans traveled “Out of Africa”.

The question here is “what makes humans human?” One might assume that the deciding factor is intelligence—but, of course, apes show many signs of intelligence. Perhaps one part of what makes humans human is the ability to engage in “collective problem-solving”. Neanderthal remains to betray signs of serious injuries, suggesting, perhaps, the “rigors of hunting” in Neanderthal society. Interestingly, there is evidence that Neanderthals were seriously injured but then survived their injuries, implying that they took care of each other.

Pääbo has pioneered an intriguing theory about Neanderthals. It’s possible that the Denisovans went extinct because of their low reproductive rates, and the same is true of humans’ “next-closest kin,”  apes. In the 21st century, apes are going extinct because they’re not reproducing quickly enough. Kolbert drives to La Ferrassie, a French site where the largest recorded assemblages of Neanderthal remains were discovered 100 years ago. As she watches a team of paleontologists at work, she imagines what life had been like for Neanderthals. Indeed, no remains of Neanderthal art or adornment have yet been discovered. In conclusion, Kolbert believes that if humans had never existed, Neanderthals would still be around.

Chapter 5 -- Jennifer E

 On page 107 of The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History it’s states, “The importance of this discovery is difficult to overstate; had it not been made- and has the chemicals continued to be widely used-- the ozone ‘hole’ that opens up every spring over Antarctica would have expanded until eventually it encircled the entire earth.” This shows that expanding holes on the ozone can cause a severe issue that’ll eventually impact the whole world and possibly cause all humans to die. (E) This is a reason why Paul Crutzen supported calling the new age that humans occupy to be “Anthropocene.” This reveals that Paul Crutzen and his colleagues believe that humans will cause a massive extinction. This overall connects to the larger theme that Humans have had an impact on the environment for millions of years. This quote perfectly matches with this theme because Paul Crutzen believed that humans are going to cause an human extinction or the “end of the world” because of actions like fertilizing plants.

Chapter 4 -- Jennifer E

According to the book  The Sixth Extinction an Unnatural History, on page 86-87 it states, “Owing to the composition of the Yucatan peninsula, the dust thrown up was rich sulfur. Sulfate aerosols are particularly effective at blocking sunlight. ” (R)This overall leaves me to think of the importance being able to prepare for natural disasters. I infer that based our knowledge of the past and by collecting from fossils, it can help us better prepare for the future. This overall connects to the theme biogeochemical systems vary in ability to recover from disturbances. Due to the sulfate covering the sun, it caused a decrease in temperature. If the temperature decreases it can cause some organism to die out.

Chapter 13 - Michael Torres

In the concluding chapter of the book, Kolbert visits the Institute for Conservation Research in San Diego, where she explores what’s in store for the future of our endangered animals.  While Kolbert mentions the human race’s tendency to cause destruction to other species, she brings light to the potential of humans that can save species that have yet to become extinct.  By exploring that potential, Kolbert touches on another APES theme: Human survival depends on developing practices that will achieve sustainable systems.  On page 268, Kolbert quotes the ecologist, Paul Ehrlich by writing, “In pushing other species to extinction, humanity is busy sawing off the limb on which it perches.”  In my opinion, this is the line that can fully describe one of the biggest conclusions from this book and from the reason the Sixth Extinction is happening. We as humans need to develop systems where we can sustain other forms of life beside humans.  This reminds me of a Ted-Ed book called Why Dinosaurs Matter because it explores how dinosaurs played no role in their extinction whereas us humans are the cause of many extinctions and could possible cause our own demise.

Chapter 12 - Michael Torres

In Chapter 12, Kolbert visits a valley in Germany called Das Neandertal.  Here, she explores the theories of what exactly happened to the neanderthals.  Theories include that they died due to climate, homo sapiens killed them off, or homo sapiens interbred with them.  Scientific investigation points to the theory that humans interbred with neanderthals because it was found that homo sapiens have very similar DNA to neanderthals.  This touches on the theme that science is a process and that it changes the way we see the world because even though there were so many theories on the disappearance of neanderthals, looking at the DNA of the two creatures can actually provide a factual explanation of what happened.  This also connects to the theme that humans alter natural systems because if it weren’t for humans, neanderthals would have kept breeding as neanderthals if not wiped out by some other natural circumstance.

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Chapter 11 - Michael Torres

In Chapter 11, Kolbert goes to the Cincinnati Zoo to meet one of the most endangered species of rhino in the world.  This sparks a question to Kolbert: Why are there scarcely any enormous creature like the rhino before her eyes? The Kolbert takes the chapter to explore the different theories behind the extinction of many large animals.  One theory is that, due to the end of the Ice Age, the traits that were favorable for cold weather like large mass and fur were no longer favorable for creatures who were not living in a new environment. Another theory is that humans had actually hunted these animals to extinction.  In page 234-235, Kolbert writes, “Before humans emerged on the scene, being large and slow to reproduce was a highly successful strategy, and outsized creatures dominated the planet.” This quote is a fine example of the recurring theme that humans alter natural systems because Kolbert is saying how being a big animal was good until humans came along and changed the game for big animals.

Chapter 11 by Andrea Guinanzaca

In chapter 11, Kolbert travels to the Cincinnati Zoo to meet Suci, an enormous Sumatran rhinoceros. At the zoo, she meets Dr. Terri Roth, a conservation director of the zoo. She tells Kolbert that Suci is one of only five rhino species left on the planet. Sumatran rhinos used to live in the Himalayas, as well as on Sumatra and Borneo. But, several rhinos were captured in Borneo and died from tetanus and other injuries. Later, zookeepers realized that rhinos couldn’t eat dry hay—they needed fresh leaves to survive.

In addition, after many false beginnings, Emi birthed Suci and a male named Harapan. They seem to be the only Sumatran rhinos born anywhere in the last thirty years. Other large mammals, such as elephants, jaguars, pandas, and cheetahs, now exist mostly or entirely in zoos and are preserved there. At these places, scientists are trying to get them to bear offspring. When Kolbert is faced to faced with Suci, she is struck by the animal’s awesome, “humungous” size.

In the 19th century, fossil-hunters discovered some of the world’s most famous fossils. There are a few good reasons to believe that humans were responsible for the mass extinction of large mammals. First, it’s likely that the extinction of large mammals took place in “pulses”, not as one continuous event. Second, large mammals had survived numerous droughts and other environmental catastrophes before the arrival of human beings.

In conclusion, today, most of the large mammals of the ancient world have died out, and smaller mammals like the rhinoceros are on the verge of extinction.